Planning for Mock debate: "That technology is destroying young minds"     1/3

With your group you have been assigned whether you are affirmative of negative of this statement. As a group you need to plan your main ideas and select where you will speak.

Secondly, you need to draft your response keeping in mind your role (which speaker you are) and the process that you follow.

For example: Rawan, Francisca, Malak are affirmative for the topic 'That technology is destroying young minds', so they may organise it like this:
1st speaker: Rawan: Addiction/ distraction
2nd speaker: Francisca: Promotes violence and bad language
3rd speaker: Malak: Cyber bullying

AFFIRMATIVE TEAM:

—Speaker 1 – is the first speaker in the debate. They define the topic and the affirmative team’s case

—Speaker 2 – is the third speaker in the debate. They attack the argument of the 1st negative speaker and presents the main part of his or her team’s case

—Speaker 3 – is the fifth speaker in the debate. They attack the negative case and summarises his or her team’s case.

NEGATIVE TEAM:

—Speaker 1 – is the second speaker in the debate. They define the topic, attacks the argument of the 1st affirmative, and then outlines negative team’s case

—Speaker 2 – is the fourth speaker in the debate.  They attack the argument of the 2nd affirmative speaker and presents the main part of his or her team’s case

—Speaker 3 – is the final speaker in the debate. They attack the affirmative case and summarises his or her team’s case.

Other resources we have used in class:

https://sites.google.com/site/english8j/debating

Saif/ Faddi: You will choose and write one speakers part affirmative or negative the topic.

                   Keeping it cool for summer: 1/3


Learning Focus: To write a formal lab report and graph data accurately.

This lesson we will hopefully receive our booklet for the practise lab report.

Things to get done by the end of the lesson:
Introduction
Aim 
Hypothesis (All should be done)
Today:
Materials 
Diagram (Labelled)
Method (To do today)
Variables:

Example of Variables in Scientific Experiments

If a scientist conducts an experiment to test the theory that a vitamin could extend a person’s life-expectancy, then:

• The independent variable is the amount of vitamin that is given to the subjects within the experiment. This is controlled by the experimenting scientist. 

• The dependent variable, or the variable being affected by the independent variable, is life span. 

What is a fair test???
We will be anylising results on Thursday.

Substitution practise tasks: 1/ 3


http://arbs.nzcer.org.nz/resources/velocity-and-force-formulae

http://arbs.nzcer.org.nz/resources/ziggurat-formula

http://arbs.nzcer.org.nz/student/resources/solving-substitution

If you need to log on: Username: arb  Password: guide

Numeracy session 29/2

Your IXL links for lesson 7 are as follows:
S4, S5, S6.

I will be checking progress through the lesson.

Junk food is killing us!!

Positives: Cheap, Social, Convenient
Negatives: Fattening (Obesity/ H disease), Sugar (Cavities/ diabetes),  Additives (preservatives/ chemicals)

Technology is ruining young minds:
Positive (Affirmative) Addiction/ distraction, promotes violence/ language, cyber bullying.
(Negative) Education, New skills, communication.

                 Debating etiquitte/ Debating planning   29/2

- Read through debating etiquitte notes.
- Watch some of this debate and make a note of good points and bad points of the debate.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vv1S9QPblv0

- Begin to plan for debate using sheet provided. This will be a 'Mock debate'. The topic will be one we have already done planning for 'Technology ruins young peoples minds'.

                              Changing nations   29/2

LF- Understand the push and pull factors of migration from rural environments to urban environments.  Read text and answer questions in Geography book.

Science: Materials for a purpose 'Keeping it cool for summer'

Today we went to the lab to do our testing. Here is the link to our modeled lab report that we will do in class. Remember that the final assessment is due in week 10 and is a lab report. This is great practise for it.

https://sites.google.com/site/8jsciencematter/chemistry-material-for-a-purpose

                                            
                                                  29/2
Make sure you have your introduction, aim and hypothesis completed for this experiment.
Mr Mike is getting our lab report booklets printed out today to continue with method and our diagram tomorrow.

                             Distributive law 'Substitution': 28/2

https://sites.google.com/site/8jmaths/distributive-law

                                            Continued 29/2

Followed on from today:
https://sites.google.com/site/8jmaths/distributive-law

                         Colons and Semi colons 28/2

Have a go at this quiz to reinforce what we did in our English lesson today.

http://www.grammarbook.com/grammar_quiz/semicolons_and_colons_1.asp

                            CASTLES: Week 8

Read pages and complete questions in your history book

https://sites.google.com/site/history8j/medieval-england

Remember to make a start with your castles assessment that is due in week 11.

Medieval Warfare: Read and complete questions on this chapter:


https://sites.google.com/site/history8j/medieval-england

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L--TvE4TUcI

IXL Links: Homework for Week 7

X2: Distributive property

Due date: Thursday 25th February

Homework week 7. Geography: Changing nations exam
Wednesday 24th February

Consider study guide and the exam question when reading these notes:

Examine the attached maps and describe how the spatial distribution of world population has changed from 1800 to 1999. Explain the reasons for this shift and change in population. Where are most people situated? Give reasons and examples of why.

Consider where most people live now and why:

Here are some things you should discuss in your response:

Natural reasons why certain places in the world have become more populated:

-Land fertility: Crops and produce

e.g India and China

- Moderate climate

- Rivers and waterways for trading and transportation.

Here are some other things we have discussed that you need to include in your response (Not all):

-         Asia and China

-         Industrial revolution

-         Baby boom post world war

-         Modern medicine and the prevention of death

-         Women’s roles in society and how they have changed

-         Africa colonization.

See notes below on each of these areas.

https://sites.google.com/site/8jgeography/changing-nations

Below is a movie on the Baby Boom that Saif found. Thank you Saif.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2YARsz7rJU4

                     Witchcraft- Revision 18/2

                 Accusation and punishment of a witch

Heresy: Someone who has a strong belief or theory that is strongly against the current beliefs or value systems

Heretic: Someone who practices this.

Being accused of witchcraft in the Middle Ages meant being labeled as a heretic.  If accused of witchcraft, the accused was forced to confess, even if he was innocent, through brutal torture.  Then he was hanged or burnt alive for his/her crimes.  Laws against witchcraft were further tightened when they began to be used for personal vendettas against the accused or in order to gain property of the accused. 

The accusations were arranged by influential persons in society or the clergy who would bring about the suspicions against those they wanted to target.  They then arrested their victims, made them confess, and executed them.  Almost 80% of those accused of witchcraft were women.

In some cases, the clergy were genuinely concerned about the souls of those they were executing.  As such, they chose to burn the so-called “witches” alive in order to save them.

    Geography Changing Nations Exam 
 Monday 22nd and February.

Your task: preparation for your exam in 3's

EXAM QUESTION: Examine the attached maps and describe how the spatial distribution of world population has changed from 1800 to 1999. Explain the reasons for this shift and change in population. Where are most people situated? Give reasons and examples of why.

Here are some talking points for your exam.


1) Post world war 2 baby boom: Rawan, Malak, Francisca

- Explain what the baby boom was.
-When was the baby boom?
- What were some of the reasons for the boom?
Give some facts and figures that support your finding

2) Colonisation of Africa: Faddi, Georgy, Yasser, Anas
-When did the colonisation of Africa occur?
- What occurred? Cause?
- How did this effect a population increase?
- What are some other interesting facts about this event?

3) India and China: Youssef, Khalid, Youssef, Saif
- Why has there always been many people there?
 (Good land, civilised, wealth etc)
- What has caused population increase?

4) Industrial revolution: Al Hassan, Pascal, Jacob and Melvin
-What was the industrial revolution?What were some significant events?
- When did this occur?
- How did this effect population levels in some countries?
- 
5) Modern medicine and the prevention of death Raja, Mo, Ali.
- What countries were the most advanced with developing some key modern medicines (e.g. penicillin, antibiotics, antidotes)
- How did modern medicine effect population levels in some countries.
- What were some other break through modern medicines during the years of 1800 and 1999

6) Traditional roles of women and how they have changed: Ayman, Kamel. Hamzeh
Careers, two kids, developing world, expectation of women now.
- How have womens roles changed from the 1800's to post war to 1999?
- How has this effected population growth and distribution.
-

             Population and statistics analysis: Your country      16/2

http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL

1) What is your countries population according to world bank?

2

      2) Make a comment on the growth or decrease from 2013 to 2014. Share some of the factors that you are aware of that may have had an impact here (e.g economic status, employment, war, migration.

3     3)What is your countries latest birth rate (Per 1000 people).  How does this compare with other countries? What may affect the birth rate in your country.

4)      What is your countries current life expectancy at birth rate? Men and women? How does this compare to other countries? Can

5)      What is your countries current unemployment rate for both males and females? Has this shown growth or a decrease over the past ten years? Can you make any comments in regards to this?

6)      What are your countries current CO2 emission (KT) levels? How do they compare with other countries? Does this surprise you?

7)      What is you countries percentage of forest area (% of land area)? Has this shown growth or a decrease in the past ten years? Why may this be a factor for your country in the future?

8)       Can you make any comment on your countries access to electricity percentage??

                                            Diversity in numbers

https://sites.google.com/site/8jgeography/changing-nations

The Feudal system

https://sites.google.com/site/history8j/medieval-england

Nobles

In the Middle Ages, there was a definite structure in society. You were born into a class of people and generally stayed in that class for your entire life. Working hard did not change your status. Your clothing, food, marriage, homes, etc., were determined for you. After the rank of king, the hierarchy was the nobles, the knights, the clergy (religious people), the tradesmen and the peasants.
During the Roman Empire, the people were ruled by a government that had a civil system. One of the duties of this government was to protect the people. When the empire collapsed, there was a king, but there was no formal organization to keep the people safe. The nobles filled this role. In turn for service to the nobles, either through farming the land or doing duties the nobles prescribed, the peasant people were given protection. The nobles offered this protection through the use of knights, who most often were the sons of the nobles

Clothing

• Clothes were made of silk, velvet and damask.
• Bright colors were worn.
• Fur was used for linings or trimming.
• Linen or silk was used for undergarments. In the winter, women wore undergarments of fur to keep warm. Undergarments were covered by a gown. Women also wore high headdresses shaped like hearts, butterflies, etc.
• Men wore trousers covered by long coats called tunics.
• Both men and women wore jewelry. Stone cutting had not yet been invented, so whole gemstones were used. Rings and pins were the most popular items.
• Fancy clothes were a status symbol. Laws were passed that forbade peasants from wearing fancy clothes, which they couldn’t afford anyway.

Food

• Nobles ate rich and fancy food prepared by the servants. Many spices were used to make the food tasty.
• People did not have forks, spoons or even cups. Only a knife was used to cut meat or bread. When nobles wanted a drink, the servants brought them a container that was used by everyone.
• Flat pieces of dry bread called trenchers were used to hold the food and were shared by several people. The more important you were, the fewer the number of people who shared your trencher.

Childhood

• Having babies in the Middle Ages was dangerous for both the mothers and the babies. About 20 percent of women and 5 percent of babies died during childbirth. An additional 10 percent to 12 percent died during the first month. Healthy children were highly valued during this time.
• Most families wanted sons to carry on the family name. Having a daughter meant that a dowry was paid to the groom at marriage, so having female children cost more money. Because having healthy children was so difficult, most parents were happy about any birth.
• If the child survived, he or she was baptized and cared for at home by the mother and by nurses until about age 7.
• There were plenty of toys and games. Medieval children had dolls, spinning tops, rattles, hobby horses, blocks, balls, whistles and puppets. Little girls had glass jewelry for dress-up, while little boys played with wooden soldiers, whips, toy horses and wooden swords.
• Royal children learned a few manners, a little reading, writing and dancing.
• At age 7, boys were sent to another castle to begin learning to become a knight. If they were unsuited for this, they were sent to a monastery to become a monk.
• At age 7, girls were sent to another castle to learn to become a lady. They learned how to manage a household, care for children, weave, sew, play an instrument, dance and sing.

Marriage

• Marriages were never based on love. They were arranged by the parents and often involved land issues and strategic bonds.
• Girls as young as age 12 were married to anyone who met the requirements of the girl’s parents. Grooms could be from 20 years to 50 years old.
• A man was the head of the household and the wife was his property — to be treated in any way he wanted.
• Men were allowed to divorce their wives, but women were not allowed to divorce their husbands.

Homes

• Within the castle was a building called the keep where the nobleman and his family lived.
• The castle consisted of a great hall that served as an office, dining room and dance hall.
• The upper floors contained bedrooms for the lord and his family.
• Nobles’ families had sitting rooms called solars where the family gathered to play games and listen to music.
• There were stables and a large kitchen, both of which were staffed by servants.
• Castles were generally quite smoky. A central fire area with a hole in the roof was standard. Perhaps some carpets, called tapestries, hung on the walls, but the floors were often dirt-covered with dried grass and reeds, or were made of stone. Dogs generally were allowed to go anywhere.
  By today’s standards, we would find the cleanliness to be very bad.

Recreation

• Men spent much time with hunting and falconry. Men were hired to capture and train hawks.
• Knights gathered for “jousting” tournaments.
• Women sewed, took care of children and ran the estate.

Peasants

In the Middle Ages, there was a definite structure in society. You were born into a class of people and generally stayed in that class for your entire life. Working hard did not change your status. Your clothing, food, marriage, homes, etc., were determined for you. After the rank of king, the hierarchy was the nobles, the knights, the clergy (religious people), the tradesmen and the peasants.

For peasants, life was hard. They worked long hours every day just to ensure that their family had a roof over their head and food to eat. If your parents were peasants, you probably would be a peasant as well. Most of the peasants were farmers, but some were tradesmen, such as millers or tavern owners. The farmers leased their land and also paid taxes to the lord and to the king. Most farmers were not free, but rather were serfs. They were required to stay with the land and had to work several days a week for the lord of the manor. There were some free peasants, but most did not leave their lord.

Clothing

• Because they were poor, their clothing was usually rough wool or linen. The women wove the fabric and made the clothes. Peasants generally had only one set of clothing and it almost never was washed.
• Men wore tunics and long stockings.
• Women wore long dresses and stockings made of wool.
• Some peasants wore underwear made of linen, which was washed “regularly.”
• The most common colors for peasant clothing were brown, red or gray.
• Both men and women wore clogs made of thick leather.
• In cold weather, both men and women wore cloaks made of sheepskin or wool. They also wore wool hats and mittens.
• Children basically dressed in the same style as the adults.

Food

• Peasants generally lived off the land. Their diet basically consisted of bread, porridge, vegetables and some meat.
• The main crops were corn, wheat and beans.
• Near their homes, peasants had little gardens that contained lettuce, carrots, radishes, tomatoes, beets and other vegetables. They also might have fruit and nut trees.
• If the peasant was wealthy enough to have cows or goats, the family would have cheese and milk.
• Many peasants died when the weather was too wet or too dry. If their crops didn’t grow, they didn’t have food to eat.

Homes

• Peasants lived in towns on the lord’s manor.
• Houses were constructed of stone or of branches covered with mud and straw.
• The roofs were thatched.
• There were generally two rooms in the home.
• The rooms had dirt floors and a few furnishings in the common room, such as stools, tables, chairs and chests.
• The second room contained the beds for the whole family.
• Often in the winter, the animals also lived in the common room.
• An open fireplace was in the common room.
• There were small windows without glass.
• Candles were used to light the inside of the house.

Childhood

• Often, children were named after a close relative or a saint.
• In a peasant household, everyone was needed to work in the fields. Often children as young as age 2 were left alone. Many accidents happened.
• Peasant children were poor and did not have many toys.
• Children did not go to school or have tutors, so few knew how to read.

Marriage

• Virtually all marriages were arranged by the parents.
• Peasants generally married people from their own village.
• Men were the head of the household and the wife was his property — to be treated in any way he wanted.
• Men were allowed to divorce their wives, but women were not allowed to divorce their husbands.
• Adultery and divorce were less common among the peasants.

Religion

• Religion was very important to the peasants.
• They believed that faith could take them to a world that was certainly easier than the one in which they lived.
• Peasants generally observed the Sabbath and celebrated church holidays.

The Middle Ages

The time
The word medieval comes from the Latin words medium aevum, meaning ‘middle ages’. The world of medieval Europe emerged after the fall of the Roman Empire in the late fifth century AD. It was the period from about AD 500 to about AD 1500. 
Historians often subdivide the medieval period into:

• the early Middle Ages (or Dark Ages)
• the later Middle Ages.

We are going to concentrate on the later Middle Ages — the high point of medieval civilisation.
The mind set
The world of medieval Europe was:

• largely an agricultural world
• controlled mainly by small groups dominated by men.

Leaders and priests taught people to accept their position in life and the fact that they had few rights and little freedom.
Life was short and difficult. People died young, partly because of lack of medical knowledge and effective treatments and partly because the medieval era was a time of constant warfare.
Medieval Europeans were superstitious. They thought that witches or evil spirits caused illness, plague, drought, famine and crop failure. The majority of western Europeans believed the Catholic Church's teachingthat the Earth was the centre of the universe and that the sun, planets and stars revolved around it.
The feudal system
In medieval Europe, the system for organising how land would be used and for controlling people was called the feudal system or feudalism.
Charlemagne (AD c.747–814) introduced this system in the eighth century to help him control large areas of land in Gaul (France). Feudalism gradually spread as Charlemagne gained more land in western and central Europe.
Feudalism helped countries become stronger and provided people with a sense of protection. It also placed many restrictions and controls on the ways people lived their lives.




Feudalism in England
William of Normandy (later known as William the Conqueror) introduced feudalism into England in 1066. He became king after invading England and winning the Battle of Hastings.
Under the feudal system, William claimed all of England's land as his own. He then divided up the land to reward those who had been loyal to him and to gain promises of their future support.
William's actions provide a good example of how invasion and a new system of government were able to change the lives of people already living in that country.








A diagram showing how William divided England after he invaded in 1066

John and the Magna Carta
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hYXuTZWNOJo
The feudal system gave the king great power. Over time, some of the tenants-in-chief in England began to resent this.
On 15 June 1215, at Runnymede in England, a group of barons rebelled against King John (1165–1216). King John was an unpopular king and known for his often cruel and unjust actions and decisions. He tried to seize the throne from his brother and ordered the murder of his nephew Arthur so that he could ensure his own succession. The barons forced him to sign a document known as the Magna Carta, which is Latin for ‘great charter’. They wanted to stop him, and any monarchs who came after him, from ruling unjustly.
The main idea of the Magna Carta was that the king would not be free to do whatever he wanted in governing the country. He had to:

• respect the system of law that had developed
• use this system of law in his dealings with the people.

Castles for protection and control
William the Conqueror believed that building castles helped him to control a country. He allowed his Norman lords to build hundreds of motte and bailey castles, made of timber and earth. Over time, lords ordered stone castles to replace them.
Stone castles
The donjon was the main building of a stone castle. It was a three- or four-storey tower with walls about three metres thick. To get to the donjon, visitors crossed the drawbridge over the moat — a deep, wide ditch, built around the castle and filled with water. They then passed under the portcullis, which was an iron grate on either side of a gateway. The guards could lower this to prevent entry into the bailey. This large courtyard contained stables, animal pens and perhaps also garden areas.
The lowest level of the castle was below ground. It housed storerooms, a well that provided the castle's water supply, and dungeons. The guard rooms, soldiers’ quarters and chapel were on the next level up. Then came the great hall, an important meeting and entertainment area, and finally the sleeping quarters of the Lord's family.
Open fires provided heat and plenty of smoke. There were no chimneys, and servants put coverings on the wall openings to try to keep in the warmth. To minimise the danger of accidental fires, kitchens were often in separate buildings linked by a passageway to the castle keep.
Building castles
Castle builders wanted to create structures that would:

• provide a residence for a monarch or chief tenant
• protect and maintain the power and property of the owner against enemy attack
• be able to withstand a siege
• act as a military base (garrison) from which an army could control the surrounding countryside.

Nobles thought carefully about where to locate their castles. They made sure that the site had a good view of the surrounding area. The lord would have made sure important resources were nearby, including:

• towns, from whose people the lord could demand taxes
• ready supplies of fresh water and building materials
• workers to build the castle
• roads or rivers for transport

The manor and the village
About 90 per cent of medieval Europeans were peasants who lived in villages of about 100 to 300 people. Villages were usually located near a stream or river, which provided fresh water and a supply of fish. The villages and the land around them were called manors.
Manors varied in size from about 900 to 3000 hectares and were owned or controlled by a lord (or lady). The lord's own farm area, which comprised about one-third of the total, was known as the demesne. The villagers farmed the rest of the land. They used mountainous land for sheep and cattle rearing. In the warm climate of southern Europe, people planted orchards and vineyards.
Every village had a common, which all villagers shared as grazing land for their animals. The village also included: church land, known as the glebe; the lord's hunting forest; and fenced-in meadows where hay was grown.
The peasants lived in one- or two-roomed wooden huts with clay walls, unglazed window holes, dirt floors and thatched roofs. In winter they shared these lodgings with their animals. Each house had its own vegetable garden known as a toft.
Organising farm work
The manor was made up of a strictly organised community of workers.

• Some were tenants, or freemen, who had bought their freedom and paid rent and services for the land they used.
• The next group were serfs, or villeins. The lord ‘owned’ these peasants and they worked three days a week on his land, as well as working on their own rented strips of land. They also did boon work, which meant five days a week labour on the lord's land at harvest time.
• The third group of peasants were known as cottars. They had no land other than their cottage plot and survived by craftwork or by working for other peasants or for the lord of the manor.

The lord's power
The lord of the manor had great power over the peasants who lived there. Villeins had to ask his permission before they could leave the village, get married, sell their animals, or have their children taught to read and write. Peasants had to pay a tax to the lord whenever they used:

• the lord's mill to make flour
• the lord's oven to bake bread
• the lord's brewery to make beer.

They paid additional taxes when sons were born or daughters were married. When the peasant died, the lord would usually claim a death duty in the form of the peasant's second-best animal.
The open-field system
Peasants organised farming on an open-field system. There were no fences, walls or hedges to separate farming land. The villagers divided the land into three fields. Each year they left one field fallow (without a crop) to allow it to recover its fertility. They used the unfarmed land to graze cattle, which also provided it with a natural fertiliser.
Each year, villagers held meetings to decide how to divide their land and what to grow. They divided two fields into 10-metre-wide strips, separated by raised unploughed land or ditches. Each peasant had a share of good and poor strips. Everyone had to plant the same crop in the two usable fields. They rotated the crops so that different nutrients were taken from the soil each year.
The working year comprised a seasonal cycle of planting, growing, harvesting and repair work. The reeve, an official chosen by the whole village, ensured that everyone started work early and worked hard. The reeve also consulted with the lord's representative to work out what services the villagers had to provide. He carried a white stick as a sign of his responsibilities.
Peasants worked as long as there was daylight. In summer, work started at about 4.30 am and finished at about 7 pm. In winter, work started at about 6.30 am and finished at about 4 pm. Except for holidays, peasants worked a six-day week, with Sunday being a day of prayer and rest.
Beliefs and values
Catholic Church
By the 1100s, Christianity was the most powerful and influential religion in western Europe. It influenced everyone's life.
People had simple beliefs: those who followed God's teachings would go to heaven and those who did not would go to hell. People showed that they honoured God by making Sunday a day of rest and devotion to God.
People also celebrated other holy days throughout the year. On these days away from work, people remembered saints and celebrated their lives through festivals, games and feasts.
People looked to their religious leaders, the clergy, to help explain their world. They supported their church leaders by paying them the tithe, a tax of 10 per cent of the crops they grew.
The Catholic Church became very wealthy and often very influential in government, law-making and law enforcement. To gain favour with God, many wealthy nobles left land, property and money to the Catholic Church, which became richer than most kings. It controlled about one-third of the land in Europe, and had its own courts and laws (called canon law) and used the name Christendom to describe the Christian countries of Europe.

The clergy spoke and wrote in Latin, and people relied on the information the priests gave them because most people did not have the opportunity to read, write or learn about these things for themselves.Friars lived among ordinary people, helping the poor and relying on others to provide them with food and a place to sleep.


Crime and Punishment

Medieval crime

Crimes in the medieval world included minor offences such as stealing firewood from the lord's forest and nagging one's husband, as well as more serious crimes like murder, treason and witchcraft.


Witchcraft

Witchcraft was a very serious charge. People believed that witches were the devil's followers and that they used their special powers to bring suffering and unhappiness to others. People blamed witches for natural disasters — famine, plague, drought, the failure of a harvest — and even for stillbirth. Sometimes people accused others of witchcraft because of jealousy or a desire for revenge.


Canon law

The Catholic Church used its own courts and its own law (canon law) to try to control people's behaviour. It fined and even whipped people if they worked on Sundays and holy days. The most serious crime against the Church was the crime of heresy: the offence of criticising the Church's teachings. Church courts also heard cases involving fights between husbands and wives.


Crime control

Police forces did not exist in the medieval world. If someone was seen breaking the law, the lord expected the villagers to raise the ‘hue and cry’ and chase after the wrongdoer until they caught him or her. If the prisoner escaped, the lord would punish the villagers.

Some towns tried to limit the number of crimes by imposing a curfew to keep people off the streets at night. This meant that people had to be in their homes by about 8.00 pm or 9.00 pm or risk being arrested. Another way of encouraging people to prevent law-breaking was to organise them into groups called tithings. Each tithing consisted of 10 males over the age of 12 who were responsible for making one another keep the law. If any member broke the law, the others had to take him to court and pay his fine.


Guilty or not guilty?

Before Henry II introduced jury trials in the twelfth century, courts decided whether a person was innocent or guilty by using trials by compurgation (oath-swearing), combat or ordeal.


Trial by compurgation

12 people had to recite a special oath to claim someone's innocence. Any mistakes would supposedly cause the oath to ‘burst’ and prove that the accused person was guilty.


Trial by combat

Used by nobles to attempt to prove their innocence. In the beginning, the defendant and his accuser were expected to fight the battle personally. Soon everyone began to use an expert known as a champion to fight the battle in their place. People believed that God would reward the innocent person with victory.


Trials by ordeal

people asked God for a sign of guilt or innocence.

• In an ordeal by water, the accused was thrown into the ‘holy’ waters of a river or lake with hands and feet tied together to see if they sank (a sign of innocence) or floated (a sign of guilt).
• In ordeals by fire, people either had to put their hand in a pot of boiling water, hold their arm over a fire or pick up a piece of red hot iron. If the burn had healed after three days, then this was thought to be a sign of innocence.

When Henry II, King of England, introduced the system of trial by jury in the twelfth century, travelling judges conducted courts with juries of 12 men chosen from among the local townsmen. The jury decided whether the accused was guilty or innocent and the judge imposed the sentence.


Punishment

Punishments were meant to fit the ‘crime’. For example:

• Villagers tied nagging wives to a ducking stool and ducked them three times into the river.
• Women found guilty of gossiping had to wear the scold's bridle.
• A baker who had cheated his or her customers might be dragged through the streets on a sledge with a loaf of bread tied around the neck.
• A peasant who had stolen firewood from the lord's forest or whose animals had damaged someone else's crops would most likely either pay a fine or perform extra work.
• Other punishments for minor crime were more humiliating. These included putting someone in the pillory or the stocks, where onlookers could throw rotten food or rubbish at the offender.

Some of the harsher punishments for stealing or cheating included whipping and various forms of mutilation, such as cutting off a hand, an ear or the tongue. Sometimes a person's eyes were burnt out with a red hot poker.


The punishment for witchcraft was being burnt alive, because it was believed that burning would cleanse the soul. A last-minute confession entitled the ‘witch’ to be strangled before she felt the flames. The penalty for murder or treason was public execution, usually by hanging or beheading.


Avoiding punishment

Women had a unique method of avoiding punishment. A woman who became pregnant could postpone her punishment until the birth of the child.

Both men and women could avoid punishment by claiming sanctuary from the Church. To do this the accused person had to:

• stay on Church property for 40 days
• admit to their wrongdoings
• promise to ‘abjure the realm’ (leave the country forever).

Then the person had to leave the country as quickly as possible without money. As a sign of their guilt, they had to wear sackcloth and carry a white cross. While this process was being carried out, the fugitive remained under Church control and could not be arrested.


Punishing high treason

In medieval times, people used the word treason to describe the crime whereby one person murdered someone from a higher level in the social scale.

The word treason also has the meaning of doing something that is a serious act of disloyalty to the king or queen. This could be plotting to kill or overthrow the monarch or helping the country's enemies.

People would call that person a traitor and call his or her crime high treason. The punishment for the crime of treason was usually death by execution in a public place with an audience.